Hamlet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 16

Hamlet - Essay Example â€Å"The Murder of Gonzago† is a play coordinated by Hamlet as he gains from the phantom this was his uncle Claudius who slaughtered Hamlet’s father so as to turn into a ruler. It is planned for reproducing the occasions which, as Hamlet suspects, occurred in actuality and prompted the passing of his dad. Therefore, the rationale behind indicating this play is to uncover the blame of Claudius by giving him conditions that are required to cause a specific response from the man: â€Å"To get the awareness of the king.† (Act II, Scene II) along these lines, the tension is made. Thus, Hamlet affirms his questions and understands that his dad was executed by the new lord. Along these lines, the plot gets its consistent turn of events and ways to deal with the peak. Aside from filling in as an impetus for the plot advancement, consideration of the play into the play can effectively reinforce the topic of imagining and absence of sureness, which is one of the basic subjects of the given play. All through the play, Hamlet and Claudius are assuming their jobs (Hamlet acts crazy and Claudius †legitimate and blameless) rather than being what they truly are. Simultaneously, it isn't evident whether Gertrude was faithful to her better half and whether she thought about the plans of Claudius. Moreover, Hamlet isn't sure whether the apparition he saw was stating reality: â€Å"The soul I have seen might be a devil.† (Act II, Scene II) So also, entertainers in â€Å"The Murder of Gonzago† are assuming their jobs and feature the theme of drama of the life. The play inside the play turns into an impression of the genuine in which individuals go about as entertainers. The accompanying can likewise imply on the endeavors of Shakespeare to affirm the significance of craftsmanship and intensity of theater all in all. For example, in Hamlet, the play inside the play uncovered reality, however gives the sovereign the force and enthusiasm to vindicate. At the end of the day, entertainers on the stage incite activities and cause one to consider the past and anticipate

A Sociological Analysis of Ron Howards Apollo 13 Essay -- essays resea

     Ron Howard’s re-formation of the happenings on board NASA’s Apollo 13 flight consolidated probably the greatest ability in Hollywood to create a stunning film. Apollo 13 sets aside us back in effort, to the late 1960’s and mid 70’s, when America’s NASA space program was flourishing and the world stood aside to see who might arrive at the moon first. The effects of room program are as yet obvious right up 'til the present time. It is even said that by beating the Russians to the moon, we set up ourselves are the top force on the planet and impelled ourselves to the status we hold today. While today our space program struggles in the open eye, this film delineates when NASA’s victories and disappointments held a gigantic sociological effect on American and even worldwide life.      In a wide range of angles, the American space program and all the more explicitly the salvage of the Apollo 13 group truly indicated attributes like those found in any three of the major sociological viewpoints: functionalist, emblematic interactionism, and strife. On one hand, it very well may be seen that NASA is a huge structure shaped of numerous littler structures that keep is going. The administration finances NASA, NASA recruits team to construct and fly the boats and the various groups do their different parts to meet up in general and make everything turn out to be (much as the group on the ground did during the salvage strategic the Apollo 13 group). Presently then again, the representative interactionism truly shows itself in not simply the salvage crucial space program itself, yet including everybody all through the whole film. Emblematic interactionism decides how we place significance on things throughout everyday life and how we structure our feelings and needs. Strolling on the moon was the most significant thing to Jim Lovell from the get-go in the film. Anyway as situations developed, Jim understood the genuine significance was life itself and his family and group. Once more, without images, Jim’s family wouldn’t have implied as a lot to him and he may have dismissed them out and out. The last of the three sociological viewpoints is the contention point of view. While this point of view turns out to be barely clear in the film, it doesn’t play almost as significant a job as do the other two. The main time that any type of intensity battle showed up was from the get-go in the flight when Jim and Fred didn’t acknowledge Jack being on their boat, probabl... ...xploited deficiencies and ruins have brought open analysis and legislative financing reductions. Its triumphs are no longer adulated in the American eye and have been set aside as a national need since the time its greatness days in the late 60’s and mid 70’s. No longer does the space program fill in as a joining power, however as a program many believe is unneeded when set alongside other national issues.      In end, Ron Howard’s Apollo 13 was an arresting re-production of the genuine occasions that occurred in excess of 25 year back. This film fills in as a model of American culture and its sociological perspectives. It outlines different exercises in getting society and social association not simply among the three group individuals on board Apollo 13, yet the whole NASA team and the entirety of America and the world that viewed the situations develop. Despite the fact that the space program’s impact on American way of life isn't as huge as it was in the 1960’s and 70’s, its significance to the endurance of humanity is inconceivably belittled. Rather, quite a bit of American consideration in this new century is coordinated towards fighting, psychological oppression and developing interior issues with the legislature.

Career Path for Acounting Essay Example for Free

Profession Path for Acounting Essay It is generally so difficult to give the specific number of individuals who have studied bookkeeping, yet one thing that I know is that the demography is extremely wide and huge. This is on the grounds that they have various purposes behind studying this vocation way. The most widely recognized motivation to all individuals is on the grounds that bookkeeping is an attractive vocation and they just need to get a new line of work. The quantity of individuals studying this field is developing hugely and the most significant thing is to think about the principle reason of joining this calling. A few people will guarantee that when they were in secondary school, this was their best subject and they cherished it thus they should study it. I accept the best explanation behind studying bookkeeping is on the grounds that it has wide assortments of vocation way that one can study. Individuals ought to comprehend that this field isn't about charges and credits. It is to a greater extent an imparting language in the realm of business and this is the reason numerous CEOs hold a degree in this field. In the day today life it is generally one of the most well-known college degree programs. The most significant thing is to verify that the entirety of the individuals who are in this calling get business and that is the reason numerous individuals who have wandered in bookkeeping consistently have contemplations for such posts. The most intriguing piece of this vocation decision is that more often than not the individuals who adventure into it will consistently have the best occupation positions hanging tight for them in light of the fact that numerous individuals consistently have a thought that it is a troublesome order. The business openings are proliferating for the alumni studying bookkeeping. The administration figures shows that at any rate 1.2 million of occupations are held by bookkeepers consistently. As per the Feldmann, 2009 and furthermore the overview done by the Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA, 2000) the alumni are declining however in the wake of returning to their exploration in the year 2005, it mirrored an expansion in number of the bookkeeper graduates. This has become a help to many bookkeeping selection representatives. As per the 2007 Employment elements and development desires (EDGE) 57% of the recruiting chiefs have a trouble when recruiting qualified staff. This require a need of bookkeeping graduates, which luckily is expanding day after the different as the business endeavors increment. Subsequent to achieving a degree in this area, the greater part of the understudies consistently select to become open bookkeepers as the primary vocation decision. The decision of either accepting occupation as a private bookkeeper relied upon the way that they needed to settle on decisions among the pay esteems offered to them. None of them like to work in the non benefit associations. They additionally dare to work in a CPA organization since this will offer them a chance to wander in regions that they need to encounter particularly in the review area and inspecting. This will offer them the essential experience and that is something that have fortified such a large number of understudies in wandering in the open division choice. One may likewise pick to wander in the private part which is colossally worthwhile. A portion of the understudy will constantly prefer to work for the organization which is ascending in this segment, however this will be dictated by the degree of research one is eager to do. This will allow them to develop and support their vocation ways in various divisions. I would encourage the alumni to slant towards the open segment particularly the legislature and non gainful segment which will give them the best professional stability regardless of whether the compensation is low. There are a few things that a bookkeeper can do after they have finished their college degree. One can decide to have practical experience in various regions of this field, yet above all have the sort of abilities that can empower them in doing as such. One of the territories that is regular for individuals who have done bookkeeping. Examining is one of the zones that one can wander in. It is one of the fundamental regions that individuals have decided to assemble their professions in. This sort of employment includes checking of records and budget summaries for an association in order to decide whether they are making misfortunes and are they going through the money that has been designated to them in like manner. In the time that we are in today, crafted by this nature has been mechanized and for the most part they simply need to enter in the qualities in like manner and they will get the correct sort of explanation. They guarantee that the qualities that are introduced are for the budgetary year contains the correct qualities. Bookkeeping profession ways are extremely differed and this is the reason numerous multiple times one needs to consider the way that they need take. Numerous individuals after they have cleared school don't have an impression where to recoil their vocations yet the numerous alternatives have in these profession ways that can be taken. Accounting is something else that they can do. These are the individuals who track solicitations, installments and other income seeking an organization or a person. As a rule they will consistently need to wander here appropriately. Another territory, which they would wander in is turning out to be general bookkeepers. This is nearly the equivalent to a clerk, however they make collections and the important changes in the bookkeeping records. In the huge associations, they are typically positioned in divisions like HR office managing the installment of the staff. Another zone is the point at which one turns into a controller. These are the individuals who are answerable for the bookkeeping division. They for the most part work in the open segment yet in addition adventure in the private division and they are for the most part accountable for income for the association. For one to reach to such a position, one must work and put a ton of assurance in the work that they do. The other activity, which is accessible for them is turning into a measurable bookkeeper. These are the individuals who work with the legislature or the people who are responsible for inspecting and exploring wrongdoings which are identified with bookkeeping fakes and other related things. These individuals ought to guarantee that they groups some degree of law information since this will help them in distinguishing territories which have been changed and aid indictment of the guilty parties. A spending expert is something else that they can do. This is on the grounds that they can decipher numerous things, which are recorded in the spending plan. This is a pivotal and including work since they are the individuals who are capable really taking shape of budgetary designs for organizations and different associations particularly the administration offices and other non beneficial associations. The experts who have taken up these works can take up these employments in both the private and the open divisions. The individuals who take these sorts of occupations should be imaginative with regards to the arrangement procedure and that is the reason they ought to have great individual and relational aptitudes. Money related bookkeeping is another area that one can wander in. These are the people who are responsible for the planning of fiscal summaries of the accessible organizations or any endeavor. These are the people who are utilized to settle on choices when there is a merger which is going to occur in any organization. This is on the grounds that these individuals Are skilled to consider the financial explanations of the two organizations and decide whether there is a requirement for merger and on the off chance that one of the organizations is exploiting the other or not. They are additionally liable for anticipating to decide the profits that will be experienced by the organizations when they blend. It is critical to ensure that these individuals are answerable for the budgetary and bookkeeping forms. The executives bookkeeping is an extremely bustling situation in any association. This is the reason numerous individuals can have the sort of choices that are deterministic during the time spent capital planning and the zone of investigation of agreements. Control on organizations on the costs and the cost examination is finished by these individuals. They ordinarily ensure that they work in close contact with the individuals answerable for the showcasing segment since they aid a major way with regards to the creation choices which are useful for the government assistance of the organization. Tax collection is another zone which they can take up. This is for people who might want to become charge bookkeepers. These are the individuals who work for the two organizations and people. They as a rule plan explanations which either for an organization of individual pay. It is a lift for the person who is doing this sort of work to have great information foundation of the essential sort of financial matters which is being utilized by these individuals. Bookkeepers are additionally answerable for exhorting people with regards to wandering in various types of organizations. This is on the grounds that they are the individuals who have the skill on the issues that are available and current in the business world. It is generally excellent to guarantee that the individuals who need administrations can be given autonomous and secretly. Planning and different issues, which are related with the business are given and offered to the individuals as needs be. This is common for the organizations which need a great deal of spoil business particularly those that are being faces with of rivalry. They need people who are dependable and can have the option to leave well enough alone and the customer’s data private. A few people have likewise picked to proceed with their examinations much subsequent to turning out to be qualified bookkeepers. They proceed for MS to get authorized, Certified Public Accountants. This is an individual who is affirmed by the state to back money related data in the open organizations to give precise outcomes. These are the people able to begin their own evaluating firms on the off chance that they don't a preferring or well paying opening for work (Felix 2010, 56). Hence the examination thought that it was prudent for the bookkeeper graduates to proceed to this level for better and higher odds of work openings and furthermore private or independent work undertakings.

Operations Management Zellers Essay

What serious need is significant for a markdown store, for example, Zellers? Cost is the most significant serious need for a rebate store, for example, Zellers. So as to perform seriously as a rebate store, the association must accentuate low working expenses. With this need, Zellers can create at low expenses in contrast with contenders and offer items at low costs so as to address customer issues and become a request champ. 2. Three nonexclusive systems are ease, specialty market, and item separation. What one of these methodologies was Zellers utilizing before 1998? After 1998? Preceding 1998, Zellers was utilizing a minimal effort procedure. The organization focused on spending plan disapproved of buyers with the motto â€Å"Where the Lowest Price is the Law.† even with furious contention from WalMart entering the serious scene and different operational inadequacies, Zellers settled on a few vital choices and changes. After 1998, Zellers was utilizing a specialty showcase procedure, by altering its crucial become a â€Å"mom’s store.† Zellers concentrated on offering reasonable incentive to shoppers, instead of the most minimal cost. The organization moved away from the ease dynamic of its self-administration arrangement by putting resources in the process of childbirth, having a few client support associates on the floor. It likewise centered around putting resources into progressively well known brands and private mark items. To the company’s burden, apparently Zellers rolled out these vital improvements so as to contend all t he more legitimately with WalMart, as they moved away from limits towards offering regular low costs on 95% of its product.

Public Art

Public Art Just the other rainy spring day when I was making my way across campus to the clover food truck to satisfy a craving for their famous soy BLT on whole wheat, I passed by numerous workmen unloading flatbeds of mulch, bushes, brightly colored spring flowers to be planted, and a big bunch of string. String? Looking up, I made my way past large equipment and a police officer directing the flow of lunchtime walkers as a young woman on a crane directed workmen on the ground while pointing out how to precisely assemble her public art sculpture. MIT Tech TV String Tunnel by Yuna Kim, Kelly Shaw, and Travis Williams, all graduate students in Architecture, is located at the Dreyfus Building bridge (Building 18) and is just one of more than 20 public art installations all part of the culminating event of the FAST Festival. On the evening of May 7th, the Charles River waterfront and MIT”s campus will glow with sculpture that incorporates light created specifically by MIT students and faculty. How cool is this? But even more impressive to me about MIT”s commitment to art is that there are 91 pieces of public art on campus. I feel like I”m back in art school taking an art history course when I pass by Calder”s Big Sail on the lawn of McDermott Court, or the reclining Henry Moore in Killian Court. There is a Frank Stella room-size installation in Building 7 on the 3rd floor that blurs the boundaries between painting, sculpture and architecture, and an Anish Kapoor in the Stata Center. Geez, the Stata Center itself is a Frank Gehry work of art. And tonight the MIT List Center will dedicate a newly commissioned Percent-for-Art project called Through Layers and Leaves (Closer and Closer) by Scottish sculptor Martin Boyce. “The entire work, at approximately 10 feet tall and 95 feet in length, operates in the interstice between art, architecture, and design, between the space of a public sculpture and the privacy of looking.’ Next time you are walking around campus, be sure to look around at all of MIT”s Public Art offerings. Best viewed with a clover food truck sandwich in hand, of course.

Case Questions for American Airlines in 2011 (Group Case) - 825 Words

Case Questions for American Airlines in 2011 (Group Case) (Case Study Sample) Content: American Airline Case StudyNameInstitutionAmerican Airlines Case StudyThe airline industry is an essential source of transportation and serves almost every corner in the world. As a major booster to the economic growth, air transport has encountered significant management shortcomings. This paper will discuss the major management problems facing American Airline frustrating periods and the industry as well. American airline is one of the largest airline networks in the world and serves a large number of people in the United States and globally. During Horton period as the president of American Airlines, he was concerned with the problem of coping up with models that low-cost carriers(LCCs) used in the industry restoration of the leadership of the companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s network carrier business model CITATION Wil15 \l 1033 (Willy, 2015). LCCsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ business model was able to help American Airlines to compete outstandingly during the airline deregulation between 1978 and 2001. Also, Horton tried to compete well with those airlines that were restricting by merging to become bigger competitors in the market.Development of LCCs was not just a problem to the American Airline Industry, but also a challenge for the global airline industry. The only LCCs that had competition with American Airline was the Southwest Airlines. Its model was simple as it based on the economics of density. The model did not have a complex strategy on connecting passengers, luggage at hubs, slack time, and it did not worry about the changes in labor cost in interchange activities. The driver for this model majorly focused on aircraft utilization by turning to a point to point model the hence use of the capital. Southwest Airlines being the pioneers of LCCs were the mastermind behind this model that was boosted by U.S Supreme Court ruling on the Deregulation Act of 1978. The model was able to offer customers a lower price for using their services.A unique problem coined to American Airline during Hortonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s time was his fight to restore leadership in their network carrier model. After deregulation, the company resorted to a model called hub-and-spoke model. This model was essential to American Airlineà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s progress through the use of information technology that was able to manage complexities in their networks across the world. The design enabled customers to take computerized reservations which allowed easy product distribution. This model also made a clear and smooth load dispatch strategies and ease in allocating capacity to routes. Horton was able to resolve the leadership issues associated with the network carrier business model but still the problem of competing with the LCCs was contemporary.The arrival LCCs is one of the significant developments in the airline industry but also a big problem to the traditional airliners. LCCs model majorly focus on price rather than amenities that is essential for customer satisfaction. For Amer ican Airlines, they recognized that they are facing competition from the LCCs just after the rule of deregulation was passed. Initially charter operators served customers but due to deregulation, it enabled LCCs to expand their networks to federal operations. The Deregulation Act altered many aspects in the airline industry. It removed government control over fares and routes. This system typically led to inefficiency and higher costs and also made American airline loose passengersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ turnover drastically. That is when American Airlines realized that Southwest Airlines were potential competitors in the market.Globally, the development of LCCs has also created a danger to the legacy carriers. For American airline, it took them a decade to focus on cutting cost so that they can be able to match up with the prices at Southwest Airlines CITATION Wil15 \l 1033 (Willy, 2015). The rise of LCC has led to a new method of transparency in pricing across the aviation industry through t he dawn of online fare displays and their powerful internet search engines which enables the customer easy access to the companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬&tr...

Are You My Mother - 993 Words

The book Are You My Mother? written by P.D. Eastman, tells us a story of a new born hatchling searching for his mother who has left him unattended during the time he got out of the shell. From the very first moment, the hatchling wondered where his mother was and eventually he sets out on journey to find his mother. At first the hatchling meets a cat and ask, â€Å"Are you my mother?† (Eastman, 22). Every time it meets other animals, it ask the same question and was given the same answer. However at the very end, the hatchling sees a crane and this crane miraculously led him back to the nest that he was born in. As he returns to the nest, his mother also comes back and introduces herself and finally reunite. In this book Dr. Eastman uses picture, personification, repetition and pathos, to illustrate that children, who grows up without their biological mother or father, seeks to know who their parents are and to allow parents know that their child would like to know them. In th e beginning of the book, Eastman starts off with pictures of a mother bird taking care of her baby. These pictures are then used to emphasize or elaborate each scene to allow the audience to see the parallel between reality and the story. For example, on page 22, Eastman uses a picture of the hatchling asking the cat whether she’s his mother and then on the on page 25 he ask a hen the same question. This pattern continues as he finds other animals and every single one of the animals says that they are notShow MoreRelatedAre You My Mother? Essay1338 Words   |  6 Pages Alison Bechdel’s memoir, Are You My Mother?: A Comic Drama, focuses on Alison and her relationship with her mother. Her relationship with her mother affects the way she relates to people, especially her mother. Bechdel begins this portrayal of Alison’s relationship with her mother on the cover of the book. The red, wood-like background of the cover of the book, is behind all of the other objects. This background is most likely a desk or table of some sort with several objects sitting on top ofRead MoreAnalysis Of Are You My Mother?999 Words   |  4 Pagesway Bechdel decides to depict the characters through her art is a major factor in how the characters are developed, and can be a major factor in how the story is perceived. At a first glance, the depiction of Bechdel’s persona, Alison, in â€Å"Are You My Mother?† appears to have very masculine features. An uninformed reader may at first assume that the story is about a man. However, through the dialog ue and narration it is quickly revealed that the drawings are depictive of a homosexual woman. Bechdel’sRead MoreSusan Griffin s Are You My Mother? Essay1499 Words   |  6 Pagesinfluenced and parenting shadows a child’s future. Feminist author Alison Bechdel noted that the aspect of how close a mother and daughter relationship is could change her life. Childhoods start and end at some point, some faster and some longer but the time in between and after, more so the aspects of relationships, parent to child becomes the shadow of our life. â€Å"Are You My Mother,† by Feminist author Alison Bechdel, very interesting as well as deep graphic novel. It touches a lot on parenthood,Read MoreMy Greatest Value Of My Mother In The Short Story Thank You MaAm927 Words   |  4 PagesI have lived 14 years, and I have encountered many people who have had a major impact on my life. Many of which taught me some of the most important values I have today. In the short story â€Å"Thank You Ma’am†, the protagonist, a young boy, attempts to snatch an old woman named Mrs. Jones’s, purse. Consequently, he falls over and the woman picks him up and screams at him in a disciplinary sense. The woman then takes the boy to her home to get him cleaned off and to feed him. She talks to him and understandsRead More Parent Child Relationships in Before You Were Mine, Kid, On My First Sonne, and The Song Of The Old Mother2232 Words   |  9 PagesRelationships in Before You Were Mine, Kid, On My First Sonne, and The So ng Of The Old Mother All of the poems are about emotions and parent child relationships. In Before You Were Mine, the girl idolises and loves her mother. Whereas the man in Kid feels angry towards his father, and resents him too. In the poem On My First Sonne, the father loves his son a lot and feels grief for his dead son. Which is different from The Song Of The Old Mother as in this the mother is angry and annoyed atRead MoreThe New Tattoo1225 Words   |  5 Pages When I was a child my mother had a tattoo of a bird on her chest. One of my earliest memories is of tracing that tiny bird with my finger. It was a tiny grey line of a bird and tattooed underneath it were the words, Free Bird. When I was eleven she had it covered up with a different bird. I tried to talk her out of getting the new tattoo. In my eleven-year-old mind that tiny grey bird was a part of her in a way that new bird, drinking nectar from a flower, wasn’t. I still remember that tiny greyRead MoreThe Importance Of A Non Judgmental Relationship913 Words   |  4 Pagesfor my mother who guided me in the right direction. A non-judgmental relationship is a bond between two people who care about one another. They look at each other and look past all the sin in them; they do not judge one another. It is a caring relation were someone looks at for who you are and not what yo u have done. It is very important to have a non-judgmental relationship because you want some to love you and not judge you. You do not want anyone to examine you for all the bad things you haveRead MoreI Am A U.s. Born Citizen1424 Words   |  6 PagesNazir, am a U.S. born citizen, my date of birth is August 25, 2004, and I am currently attending Academy 1 Middle School, located in Jersey City, New Jersey. I am the third child out of the four siblings in my family. My parents are Qaiser Toqeer and Sadia Yousaf, they are the greatest, most loving, most amazing parents a child could possibly have. They love and care for us as no parents could have cared for their children. Words simply cannot express how wonderful my parents are towards me and howRead MoreCovert Conflict And Passive Aggression Essay1337 Words   |  6 Pagesdirect. When you feel tension in your relationship you express these feelings explicitly to the other person. Covert conflict, on the other hand, is indirect a nd involves expressing your anger to the other person while simultaneously denying you have any anger at all. My Midwestern family seems to be the poster children for covert conflict and passive aggression, especially my great-grandmother. In an example I will be analyzing further between my mother and my great-grandmother, my great-grandmotherRead MoreMy Grandmother - Original Writing887 Words   |  4 PagesThe first time I took a risk, I was eighteen. I was sitting in my grandmother’s kitchen. A large painting of â€Å"The Last Supper† hung on the wall, next to it, rosary beads hung reverently and with care. The beads swung softly as the fan circled lazily above me. My grandmother, mi abuelita, my second mother sat in front of me. She has always been smaller than my siblings and I. Standing at below five feet, we often had to bend at the waist to hug her, kissing her cheek in welcome or in thanks. But in

Theory of Knowledge and Reason - 1375 Words

History is most often associated with past events, other associations being hypothetical : interpreting what if theories and revisionist history. The human sciences deals with multiple fields, but those fields all generally include the factor of the human population or the human individual, hence the name human sciences. It is said that a historians task is to understand the past, while the human scientists task is to change the future. Yet there are counterclaims to these descriptions of a historians and a human scientists task. These descriptions may not be completely true in the areas of knowledge. In the areas of knowledge of history and the human sciences, individuals come to know the task of a historian and human scientist through language and reason. Historians come to know the past through surviving records and texts. This is the language aspect of history. It is through the language of those texts, that individuals come to know what the past was like. A famous example is the deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphs. Historians came to know what the hieroglyphs were saying mainly through the Rosetta Stone, an object that contained Egyptian hieroglyphs, Demotic script, and Ancient Greek in the form of three texts with the same content. Had the Rosetta Stone not been found, historians may still be struggling to understand hieroglyphs today. This way of knowing though has flaws. Due to history being learned through records, texts, or essentially sources ofShow MoreRelatedEssay John Locke943 Words   |  4 Pagesthe most compelling theory of metaphysics. First, I explain Locke’s point that all humans are born as Tabula Rasa, in order to gain basic understanding of where Locke begins his theory. Second, I discuss how Locke argues how we obtain knowledge, empiricism and representationalism, and knowledge about the work varies between strong and weak inferences. Third, I will provide counter examples to Locke’s ideas, and will explain why these cou nter examples work for Locke’s theories provided. Finally, IRead MoreThe Historical Development Of Areas Of Knowledge1621 Words   |  7 PagesShould key events in the historical development of areas of knowledge always be judged by the standards of their time? Judy Taylor Theory of Knowledge Word Count: 1599 ‘Should key events in the historical development of areas of knowledge always be judged by the standards of their time?’ This question can really only be answered on a case-by-case basis. For example, the first IPod Touch was a groundbreaking advancement in portable music and digital entertainment, however, if comparedRead MoreThe Gettier Problem: A Marathon Essay1081 Words   |  5 Pagesepistemology – the theory of knowledge. For years, philosophers have analyzed and questions what knowledge is, its value, sources, structure, and whether we know anything at all. Epistemology questions what knowledge is and how we as humans can acquire it – which involves much debate. Though our understanding of knowledge is ambiguous, we do know that knowledge is justified, true belief. There have been attempts to answer the queries through the Justified-True-Belief Account of Knowledge (JTB), knownRead MoreThe Importance of Knowledge1241 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"That which is accepted as knowledge today is sometimes discarded tomorrow.† Knowledge is regarded by many as the ultimate truth and is constantly sought after in all forms. Knowledge, however, does not remain constant and is always changing as people come to learn new and different things about the knowledge and attempt to make sense of it. These many differing theories and interpretations are what cause confusion and differences in a persons beliefs and therefore knowledge. This is why it is importantRead MorePlato s Justified True Belief Theory1343 Words   |  6 PagesFor thousands of years the most prominent theory of knowledge was Plato’s Justified True Belief theory. He was convinced that in order to know something the following criterion must be met: a) one must believe said thing to be true b) said thing must actually be true, and c) one must be justified in believing said thing to be true. This theory made a lot of sense to most epistemologists, and was generally accepted as true for a very long time. It wasn’t until a man named Edmund Gettier wrote aRead MoreTok Essay: That Which Can Be Asserted Without Evidence Can Be Dismissed Without Evidence1540 Words   |  7 Pagesor things that help in attaining knowledge. The statement â€Å"that which can be asserted without evidence can be dismissed without evidence† means that it is possible to confirm and dismiss the same if there is no evidence or proof to form an undebatable judgement. In this essay I am going to analyse this quote from the prospective of different Areas of Knowledge. I will proceed in this way because they differ from each other not only in the branch of human knowledge that they cover, but also in theRead MoreThe Text Of The Meno By Plato938 Words   |  4 Pagesquestion of what virtue is, and whether it is teachable. The paradox explained can be used to discuss merely anything, and we can thus say that either one knows or does not know. If a person knows, then they cannot investigate or question their knowledge. However, if a person does not know, they cannot inquire about it which means a person cannot question for not knowing what they do not know. Plato goes ahead and resolves the paradox in the Meno by saying that, â€Å"one would not seek what he knowsRead MoreHuman Science And Natural Science1276 Words   |  6 PagesDisagreement may aid the pursuit of knowledge in the natural and human sciences because disagreement leads to new discoveries. Disagreement is about gathering reliable knowledge as well as using this newfound knowledge, and occurs when a group fails to reach a consensus over the logic of an argument. Knowledge is composed of facts, information, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education. Two areas of knowledge that are impacted by disagreement are human science and natural scienceRead MoreConstructivism Essay1400 Words   |  6 Pagesrationalists have proposed opposing theories of the acquisition of knowledge, which appear unable to coexist. Each theory holds its own strengths but does not demonstrate a strong argument in itself to the questions, â€Å"Is knowledge truly possible?† and â€Å"How is true knowledge obtained?†. Immanual Kant successfully merged the two philosophies and provided a convincing argument with his theory of empirical relativism, or what some may call constructivism. His theory bridges the gap between rationalismRead MoreThe Theory of Knowledge1372 Words   |  6 Pageswhich is accepted as knowledge today is sometimes discarded tomorrow.† We live in a strange and puzzling world. Despite the exponential growth of knowledge in the past century, we are faced by a baffling multitude of conflicting ideas. The mass of conflicting ideas causes the replacement of knowledge, as one that was previously believed to be true gets replace by new idea. This is accelerated by the rapid development of technology to allow new investigations into knowledge within the areas

How Technology Has Impacted Our Society - 1403 Words

I. Introduction Technology and its constant advancements have integrated itself into every aspect of our world. Music has now become a place for the facilitation of experiences through technology in our society. However, the monetization of music through technology has created a far more difficult experience for the fans of music in all genres. In reference to technology, the term streaming is defined as â€Å"playing continuously as data is sent to a computer over the Internet†, (Webster). The internet and its streaming capabilities is an amazing tool used to connect the fans, almost instantly, to the music; however, it also puts the content at risk due to the possible technological issues, exclusivity rights, and digital piracy. One of the biggest reasons why technology has been impacted our society is because it has made itself useful in our daily lives. Internet streaming technology has impacted our entertainment by delivering audio and video very fast. So how does streami ng work? Internet streaming technology is created through a collaboration of three components – the server, data stream, and decoder. Servers are used to store information or data in its memory. When a consumer streams music online they are receiving cable or satellite signals from the server to their device. Next, once your data has received it has to be decoded back into audio and video. This continuous flow of information is known as streaming. II. Technological Issues According to Murphy’s Law,Show MoreRelatedHow Technology Has Impacted Our Society1739 Words   |  7 Pagesthe detection of a disease or disorder before it has completely developed. Now one might think, â€Å"Why should I care about such a thing?† Well, these folks should think about a person they cherish the most. How would it affect them if they discovered that their loved one had cancer, but it was too late to treat it? This does not always have to be the case with early detection and diagnosis. People around the world ought to embrace the beauty of technology, and take every measure possible to continue livingRead MoreIs Google Making Us Stupid?1562 Words   |  7 Pagesto himself as possible,† â€Å"Phaedrus,† in which Plato talks to Socrates about love and how we are slaves to self-pleasure. This directly connects with each of us because we have become a slave to our phones, laptops, etc. Over the past couple of years as te chnology has advanced we have become a lazier and a less intelligent society. Little do we know our brains are being re-wired and re-programmed by the technology we use every day. Nicholas Carr wrote an article called â€Å"Is Google making us stupidRead MoreEnvironmental Engineering And Its Alternative Technologies719 Words   |  3 PagesEnvironmental Engineering in Our Society Giselle Medrano â€Æ' Environmental Engineering Giselle Medrano Sixth Grade Abstract Environmental engineering is a broad field that is used to improve environmental conditions. It is pursued with different types of engineering and sciences. I will be talking about several things in my essay. First, I will introduce the essay by discussing the history of environmental engineering and its alternative technologies. Second, I will go deeper into the descriptionRead MoreSociology And How It Affects Me1044 Words   |  5 PagesOver the last semester. I ve learned a lot about sociology and how it affects me. Here are 10 concept that have impacted in my life. In our first unit of sociology, I felt I could relate with the term social network, The term social network refers to the people who are linked to one another(Henslin,116.)Social networks include everyone you know. I can relate to social networking because I m on a social salsa team. When I joined my dance team , we all had the same passion, the love of dance.Read MoreHow Technology Has Impacted Modern Society1493 Words   |  6 PagesIn the 21st century, conventional society is characterized by a digital age of technology which supplies the individual with innumerable facets of entertainment and an endless stream of information. Technology not only provides us with an unchallenging route of accessing knowledge, it also makes many activities which once required some physical or mental effort, easy. The list of how technology has positively impacted modern society through medicine, mechanics, and research is too long to be writtenRead MoreTechnology : The Impact Of Technology And It s Impact On The Future905 Words   |  4 Pagesan era of advanced technology, where every part of our daily lives is impacted by it. Recently we have found ourselves heavily dependent on the use technology and our needs and demands for more keep rising. The more advanced it becomes, the more it seems to have control over our lives. While it is impossible to explore how each new advanced technology has impacted our lives and how it will impact the future, it continues to affect our environment, people and society. Technology by its self is notRead MoreThe Creation Of A Writing System Essay1533 Words   |  7 Pages From the hand gestures of early humankind to the Facebook posts of today, humans have always had a strong urge to communicate with each other. Our ancestors used the art of oral storytelling to pass down folklore from generation to generation. However, this had limitations. The human mind is prone to forget stories and memories; so early human beings recorded their tales in cave drawings. The cave drawings gave way to the more advanced hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt, and eventually developed intoRead MorePositive helpful Technology Essays1044 Words   |  5 Pages Our technology has led to the advancements in the health industry making it easier for sick people to get the treatment they need. Technology use being taught to children is a positive use for the future of education and is necessary for students to succeed in the world, with this education it enables them to be better prepared for the world that awaits them when they enter college and work force. Even the environment is impacted when we stop to take the time to research the things we use likeRead MoreTechnology in Fahrenheit 451 and the Real World930 Words   |  4 PagesHow technology affects society in Fahrenheit 451 and the real world Every day, everywhere people are using technology to check email, calculate tax, and talk with each other. Technology has greatly affected the social structure today and in Fahrenheit 451. Technology has effected how the TV controls our lives, how we communicate with one another, and how strong the social structure is In both the real world and Fahrenheit 451. Similarly to the real world, in Fahrenheit 451 the TV is a habitualRead MoreWhat Makes A Baby Boomer?911 Words   |  4 Pages Today, there are many Baby Boomers that live in the world. Most of these people have impacted a lot of people currently. This is because of many things they have introduced to us and or gave us. There are many people that can be shown to be very important to our culture and or history, but first of all, what is a baby boomer? During the end of World War Two, there was a so called â€Å"baby boom†, and this had influenced many different countries. But, it mostly it affected western countries

Sigmund Freud On Modern Psychology And Schools Of Thought

Introduction: Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939), a Jewish Viennese doctor, developed psychoanalysis at the end of the 19th Century as a form of therapy which seeks to cure mental disorders and their physical manifestations by ‘investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind’ (Concise Oxford Dictionary). Freud’s work and philosophy played a large part in the development of Western liberal humanist understanding of meaning and purpose. Freud believed that the goal of the adult human being should be to liberate ourselves from â€Å"repressed† traumas and consequently become â€Å"free to love and work again†. Freud placed heavy emphasis on the personal solving of problems, believing that things wouldn’t change if you didn’t†¦show more content†¦Inspired by Breuer, Freud posited that neuroses had their origins in deeply traumatic experiences that had occurred in the patient s past. He believed that the original occurrences had been forgotten and hidden from consciousness. His treatment was to empower his patients to recall the experience and bring it to consciousness, and in doing so, confront it both intellectually and emotionally. He believed one could then discharge it and rid oneself of the neurotic symptoms. Freud and Breuer published the ir theories and findings in Studies in Hysteria (1895). After a while working together, Breuer ended their collaboration, feeling that Freud placed far too much emphasis on the sexual aspect of the patient’s neuroses, and was unwilling to consider other alternative viewpoints. Freud would go on to continue to refine his own arguments and in 1900 would publish a work titled The Interpretation of Dreams. Freud was a known atheist, and adamantly refused to consider any form of religious belief a solution to the problems he sought to answer. He viewed Religion as a form of psychological neurosis and distress, often suggesting that it was a kind of wish fulfilment, or perhaps an attempt at controlling the Oedipal complex. In his book NewShow MoreRelatedAnna Freud. Bio Essay1357 Words   |  6 PagesAnna Freud The philosophic contributions to the formal discipline of psychology have primarily been dominated by male visionaries, but many notable women pioneered a role in the history of psychology between 1850 and 1950. Sigmund Freud was not the only Freudian to establish credibility in the field of psychology, as his youngest daughter Anna Freud pursued a career in psychology and made significant historic contributions. Anna’s background, theoretical perspective, and contributions to theRead MoreSigmund Freud. Briana Gates. Mr. Wiles. 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Freud Sigmund was not only among the Freudian to build credibility in psychology field, this is because Anna Freud-her youngest daughter took career in psychology and made important contributions in the history of psychology. The paper will discuss the background of Anna, her theoreticalRead MoreTheoretical Views Essay 1698 Words   |  7 PagesPsychology is now and always has been a strongly debated science. Beginning from the time psychology first became separated from the philosophy and biology sciences, there has been controversy. The subject, most debated, was the explanation and description of human behavior as well as the human mind. It was the schools of thought in psychology that allowed for the major names in psychology that we study and read about on what seems to be a daily basis that put theoretical opinions and differencesRead MoreThe Theory Of Personality Psychology1019 Words   |  5 Pagesa person. Personality is like a big stew mixed with emotions, behaviors, and patterns of thought that truly define a person. Personality Psychology is the study of these different patterns among a group of people or culture. The studies of psychology started from Hippocrates’ theory that argues that personality traits are based on four different sections. This heavily influenced modern personality psychology. Three important psychologists helped shape the way humans define the term personality. AlfredRead More Sigmund Freud Essay796 Words   |  4 Pages Sigmund Freud In the 1920s, the world was changing dramatically. Underground salons were built, new architecture was used and modern dance was introduced. If it were not for certain people, the world would not be the way it is today. In the twenties, new theories and ideas in science and psychology were being presented daily. Sigmund Freud changed the world of psychology by presenting new and controversial ideas on psychology and having his theories published. Freud broke cultural boundaries asRead MoreSigmund Freud s Theory Of Psychology And Psychology1073 Words   |  5 Pages06/27/2014 Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud is considered to be the most important figures in the field of psychiatry and psychology. His ideas about psychoanalysis were developed in the 1800’s but are still being used today in the mental health field (www.studymode.com). Sigmund Freud was one of the pioneers/innovator of modern-day psychology. â€Å"As the originator of psychoanalysis, Freud distinguished himself as an intellectual giant.† (www.muskingumRead MoreSigmund Freud s Theory Of Psychology1283 Words   |  6 PagesSigmund Freud (1856-1939), is a pioneer in the field of psychology in various ways. His dedication to his field helped shape the minds of many nineteen-century contemporary schools of thought. 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Some Aspects of Muslim Educational System in Pre-Colonial India Free Essays

SOME ASPECTS OF THE MUSLIM EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN PRE-COLONIAL INDIA by Aamir Bashir ABSTRACT This paper explores some of the hitherto less known aspects of the Muslim Educational System in pre-colonial India. It examines the broad contours of this system by looking at the public attitude towards knowledge, scholars and students; the various types of institutions, and the evolution of curriculum. It also looks at the depth of Indian scholars’ engagement with IadEth and other sciences. We will write a custom essay sample on Some Aspects of Muslim Educational System in Pre-Colonial India or any similar topic only for you Order Now Finally, it also looks at Sufis and their attitude towards the various Islamic sciences. The paper suggests that the educational system of the period under study was organic in structure and was in tune with the needs of the individual and the society. The course of study was a good balance between the temporal and the religious. Indian ‘ulamE were fully engaged with the IadEth sciences; and lastly, the Sufis gave great importance to all Islamic sciences. This paper suggests that the historical Muslim educational system in pre-colonial India provides valuable resources for the problems faced by modern educational systems. INTRODUCTION The aim of this paper is to bring to light some of the hitherto less known aspects of the Muslim Educational System in pre-colonial India. By pre-colonial India, we refer to the time from the advent of Islam in India in the beginning of the eighth century CE up to the consolidation of colonial rule in the middle of the eighteenth century. 1 This short paper cannot do justice to all the details of the Muslim Educational System during this period. Therefore, we shall confine ourselves to only some aspects of it. These include the evolution of the curriculum over the centuries, and general contours of the educational system. We will also be challenging some conventional theories. These include the notion that before the coming of the press, books were in short supply in India. The other is that IadEth was little known in India until the coming of ShEh WalE AllEh (d. 1762). We will be presenting individual incidents which we feel to be representative of a broader trend and from these we shall draw general conclusions. During the period under study Muslim rule gradually extended from Sindh to include the whole of Northern India until it became one of the three major Muslim powers of that time under 1 All the dates mentioned in this paper are CE (common era) dates unless otherwise noted. the Great Mughals,2 Ottoman Turkey and Safavid Iran being the other two. Such a strong and vast empire required a strong administrative structure which in turn required an effective system of education. As we shall see later, education was sufficiently sought after, and provided for during this time, such that India at that time could favourably compare and often compete with the central lands of Islam in the field of scholarship. 3 POSITION OF KNOWLEDGE AND EDUCATION IN ISLAM We begin our analysis with looking at the position of knowledge and education in Islam. Numerous Qur’anic verses and Prophetic traditions establish the centrality of knowledge in Islam. The verses include â€Å"Are those who know and those who do not know alike? † (39:9); the first revelation â€Å"Read in the name of your Lord who created† (96:1); and the prayer taught in the Qur’an, â€Å"Say (O MuIammad), My Lord! Increase me in knowledge† (20:114). Similarly, the Prophetic traditions (aIEdEth) exhorting people to seek knowledge are also well known. Examples include the famous tradition in which the Prophet is reported to have said, â€Å"It is obligatory upon every Muslim to seek knowledge. †4 At another time, he said â€Å"Seek knowledge even if you have to go to China. †5 Similarly, al-TirmidhE has reported a IadEth in which the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) said, â€Å"The excellence of a scholar upon the worshipper is like my excellence over the lowest one amongst you. † 6 This emphasis upon knowledge and education has been taken for granted in Muslim societies since the beginning of Islam. The religious basis for the pursuit of knowledge resulted in defining the objective of education as al-fawz bi al-sa‘Edah fi al-dErayn i. e. to succeed through bliss in this world and the hereafter. This in turn implied that education should be acquired 2 â€Å"Great Mughals† is a term used to refer to the first six Mughal Emperors of India. These are, in chronological order, BEbar, HumEyEn, Akbar, JahEngEr, ShEh JahEn and Awrangzeb. These are the first and the greatest of all Mughal Emperors. In all, they reigned from 1526 to 1707 with a fifteen year interregnum from 1539 till 1555. The empire reached its zenith with Awrangzeb (reigned from 1658-1707) and after his death began her decline which ended with the capture of the last Mughal emperor BahEdur ShEh Zafar at the hands of the British in 1857. 3 S. M. Jaffar, Education in Muslim India, (Delhi: IdEra Adabiyyat-e-DillE, 1972), viii. 4 AbE Bakr AImad ibn al-? usayn al-BayhaqE, Shu‘ab al-OmEn, (Beirut: DEr al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1410AH), 2:253. 5 Ibid. 6 MuIammad ‘Abd al-RaImEn ibn ‘Abd al-RaIEm MubErakpurE, TuIfat al-AIwadhE bi SharI JEmi‘ al-TirmidhE, ed. Abd al-RaImEn MuIammad ‘UthmEn, (Beirut: DEr al-Fikr, n. d. ), 7:456. 1. To understand the will of God and to lead one’s life according to it. 2. To inculcate Islamic values in oneself. 3. To cultivate cultured behavior in oneself. 7 As can be seen from these objectives, acquiring knowledge was considered a sacred duty. It was the sole means to success. Knowledge (‘ilm) and practice (‘amal) were inter-li nked. Instruction (ta‘lEm) went hand in hand with training (ta’dEb). The traditional Islamic concept of education was, thus, holistic as understood at that time. Muslim scholars had divided knowledge into two parts, the farI ‘ayn (individually obligatory) and the farI kifEyah (collectively obligatory); but there was no strict separation between the religious and the secular sciences. Both formed part of an integrated whole. THE GENERAL ENVIRONMENT AND PUBLIC ATTITUDE As we have seen above, Islam has placed considerable emphasis upon knowledge. Because of this we find that, historically, the general attitude of Muslims, throughout the world, towards knowledge, scholars and students had been that of reverence. In every land, there were to be found a significant number of people who had dedicated themselves to learning and/or teaching. At the same time, the general public considered it an act of worship to help the scholars and the students. This public attitude coupled with safety of the roads maintained by stable and strong Muslim governments, enabled people to move across great distances in search of knowledge. In spite of the crude means of conveyance, people were constantly on the move; students setting out to learn, teachers traveling to teach. GhulEm ‘AlE OzEd BilgirEmE (d. 785) writes in his book Ma’Ethir al-KirEm, which is a historical account of sixteenth/seventeenth century Mughal India, that: Seekers of knowledge travel in multitudes from one place to another. Wherever, the situation is agreeable, they get busy in learning†¦. The well-to-do people of each town take care of these seekers of knowledge and consider it a great honour to serve them. 8 7 8 Al-Nadvi Moinuddin, Survey of Muslim Education: India, (Cambridge: The Islamic Academy, 1985), 5. Sayyid ManE? ir AIsan GElEnE, PEk-o-Hind main MusalmEnon kE Ni? Em-e-Ta‘lEm-o-Tarbiyyat. Lahore: Maktaba RaImEniyya, n. d. ) 19. The teachers occupied a high position in society. Though their emoluments were not always great, they commanded universal respect and confidence. GilEnE mentions a number of incidents when the teachers, in spite of their poverty, refused to accept any monetary help from others; and whatever help or gift was accepted, the giver always considered it to be an honor for his gift to have been accepted. 9 This attitude was widespread throughout the period under review. Even absolutist monarchs showed deference to the ‘ulamE and the Sufis. Ni? EmE has also mentioned several incidents of ‘ulamE and Sufis refusing royal gifts even while suffering from abject poverty. 10 For many, poverty was a chosen path and the royal gifts were seen as undoing years of patient hard work. INSTITUTIONS The main institutions for teaching and learning during the period of Muslim rule in India were maktabs and madrasahs,11 mosques and khEnqEhs (Sufi centers), and private houses. Almost every mosque served as an elementary school. However, a large number of eminent scholars and men of letter taught independently and even supported the students who came to them to study. This then was the foundation upon which the whole system was built; the teacher and the student. The issue of budgetary allocations for school buildings and provision of other services was not the top most priority for these people. What was most important was the existence of a sincere teacher and a sincere student. If these two were obtaining, other things could be improvised. OzEd has mentioned a famous teacher of his hometown Bilgiram, MEr MubErak. He taught there for years but throughout this time, he was based in the verandah of a certain noble of the town. verandah. 2 At the same time, the state was not negligent to matters of education. Kings as well as local Nawabs and other well-to-do people considered it an act of virtue to build maktabs, madrasahs and to support teachers and students. We find a network of such institutions; oneman schools as well as larger more organized affairs; scattered throughout the length and breadth 9 Hundreds came and studied from him but he conti nued to operate from that Ibid. , 24. Khaliq Ahmad Nizami, Some Aspects of Religion Politics in India during the 13th century, (Bombay: Asia Publishing, 1961), 152-156. 1 It should be noted that madrasah refers to an institute which offers a comprehensive multi-year course in Islamic studies. It is different from a maktab which refers to part-time schools that offer basic instruction in reading the Qur’an and basics of Islam. 12 GElEnE, 21. 10 of India. All three levels viz. elementary, secondary, higher, were catered for. However, no one level dominated in any one institution. Private houses were being used to provide basic elementary education but at the same time could be seen to provide advanced studies to those interested. In fact, this lack of bureaucratic uniformity was this system’s greatest strength. The system reflected the needs of the people. It accommodated the grassroots desires and ambitions of people regarding education. Thus, we find huge well-funded, well-organized madrasahs existing side by side with one man schools operating out of private houses. 13 The student had the liberty of choosing which teacher to study from. Problems of admissions and school discipline were rare. The focus was on the real thing: education; with very little squabbling over the means to acquire it. Muslim rulers also patronized scholars. Amongst the earliest examples is that of the famous theologian Fakhr al-DEn al-REzE (d. 1209). He was also a great philosopher and expert in many Islamic sciences. He was patronized by many rulers. Among these was ShihEb al-DEn GhaurE (1206), the founder of Muslim rule in India proper. It is reported about him that he had al-REzE stay in his camp wherever he went. Al- REzE was the official prayer leader and delivered sermons and lectures in the camp. 14 COURSE OF STUDY Muslims first reached India as conquerors in the beginning of the eighth century. The intellectual climate of their Arab homeland was extended to Sindh, the portion of India that had been conquered. At this stage we find an active participation of Sindh based scholars in the field of IadEth. Their names appear in the chains of transmission of aIEdEth that were later on recorded by other IadEth masters. Some of their names and works have also been mentioned by ‘Abd al-? ayy al-? asanE in his al-ThaqEfah al-IslEmiyyah fi al-Hind. 15 However, this period lasted for only four centuries and Muslim rule was confined to Sindh and Multan (southern Punjab). Beginning towards the end of the tenth century, Muslims began to enter India from the North-West in successive waves, each time extending their territories even further towards North and Central India. Along with each invading army, and on 13 14 Ibid. MuIammad ShafE‘, FutEI al-Hind, (Karachi: IdErat al-Ma‘Erif, 2002), 60-61. 15 ‘Abd al-? ayy al-? asanE, al-ThaqEfah al-IslEmiyyah fi al-Hind, (Damascus: Mujamma‘ al-Lugha al-‘Arabiyyah bi Dimashq, 1983), 135. their own as well, came ‘ulamE and Sufis. Both had a role to play in the spread of Islamic knowledge in India. Major cities in the newly acquired territories quickly turned into centers of learning. Initially, Multan, then Lahore and finally Delhi became the pre-eminent centre of learning in North India. 16 This second period starting from the end of the tenth century lasted until the last quarter of the fifteenth century. During this time, India benefited enormously from an otherwise unmitigated disaster. The Mongol hordes that ravaged Central Asia, Afghanistan and Khorasan forced many of the scholarly families based there to migrate to other countries. India was the top destination for them. Not a day passed but a noteworthy scholar would arrive in Delhi with camel loads of books. The Indian rulers were fully aware of the worth of the newcomers. They made them feel extremely welcome. Every newcomer was given a post or a stipend or an estate to support himself and his family. Thus, the nascent Muslim community of North India benefitted from a continuous supply of scholars and books. During this period, the education system in North India consisted of three stages: At the first stage, as has been the practice throughout Muslim history in all Islamic lands, a child’s education began with the Qur’an. Each locality had teachers who specialized in tajwEd, the art of recitation of the Qur’an. It is mentioned about Ni? Em al-DEn AwliyE (d. 1325), the great Chishti Sufi saint of Delhi, that he started his education in his hometown, Badaun. This began with learning how to read the Qur’an. His teacher was a freed slave who had converted from Hinduism to Islam and knew the seven major recitations of the Qur’an. 17 After Qur’an, students would normally move on to Persian, the official language of the country. Most of the major works of Persian prose and poetry were studied. These included the works of major writers such as Sa‘dE, ? Efi? SalmEn SaojE, AnwarE, and others. 18 The education of the general population normally stopped at this level. However, it seems reasonable to assume that some elementary Arabic was also taught at this stage because the students were expected to understand the Arabic phrases that were often used in Persian books and regular conversation. We also find 16 17 Ibid. , 9-10. GElEnE, 139. Also cited by Nizami in KhalEq AImad Ni? EmE, IslEmE TehzEb kE Asar HindustEn par, (Lucknow, Majlis TehqEqEt-o-NashriEt-e-IslEm, 1982), 42. 18 GElEnE, 141. people with only basic education being able to freely quote from the Qur’an and Prophetic traditions. 9 The second stage was dedicated to an intensive study of the Arabic language as well as fiqh. Some of the books taught at this stage included: KEfiyah and MufaIIal for Arabic grammar; and MukhtaIar al-QudErE and Majma‘ al-BaIrayn for HanafE fiqh (Jurisprudence). Later on, MufaIIal gave way to SharI JEmE and SharI WiqEyah replaced Majma‘ al-BaIrayn. 20 Education up to this level was considered sufficient for those wanting to engage in teaching, preaching, etc. and entitled one to be called a dEnishmand (wise man) or a mawlawE. Studies at this level would correspond to the fourth year of study in the present-day eight year Dars-eNi? EmE. In the third stage, also called faIElat, advanced books of each science were studied. These included al-KashshEf and MadErik al-TanzEl for tafsEr (Qur’anic Exegesis), MishkEt al-MaIEbEI and MashEriq al-AnwEr for IadEth, al-HidEyah for HanafE fiqh, and UIEl al-BazdawE for uIEl alfiqh (principles of jurisprudence). Along with these, major works in the various branches of balEghah (rhetoric) were also studied. The one who completed this stage was called a fEIil. As can be seen from this brief outline, rational sciences and kalEm (dialectics) were not paid much attention in the regular curriculum. Only a few basic texts of logic and kalEm such as al-QuIbE and SharI al-OaIE’if were studied. 21 In fact, the general attitude amongst the ‘ulamE towards these is best summed up in this statement of FatEwE al-TEtErkhEniyah, a fatwE collection compiled during the fourteenth century: The issues of ‘ilm al-kalEm lead to new dissentions (fitnahs) and innovations and cause deterioration of faith; (and) the ones who normally engage in it are either less-intelligent or are seeking to dominate rather than seeking the truth. 2 This all changed towards the end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century. During this third period which lasted until the beginning of the eighteenth century, logic, philosophy, and kalEm got new impetus. At this time, many students of SharEf JurjEnE and Sa‘d al-DEn TaftEzEnE moved to India and brought with them new books on grammar, 19 20 21 22 Al-Nadvi Moinuddin, 4. Ibid. , 5. GElEnE, 151. Ibid. , 155. rhetoric, ka lEm and fiqh. 23 Later, FatIullEh ShErEzE came to India from Iran and brought with him works of DawwEnE, MullE OadrE and MirzE JEn. These works were readily accepted by Indians and before long these became part and parcel of the curriculum. 24 Again during this period, purpose built institutions existed side by side with individualized private instruction. The fourth period can be said to have begun from the early part of eighteenth century lasting until the founding of DEr al-‘UlEm at Deoband in 1866. This period is characterized by the presence of two very important personalities. Each of them contributed to education in his own way. One is ShEh WalE AllEh of Delhi and the other is Ni? Em al-DEn SihElvE of Lucknow (d. 1748). WalE AllEh focused on the teaching of IadEth especially the OiIEI Sittah (the six major collections of IadEth viz. OaIEI al-BukhErE, OaIEI Muslim, JEmi‘ al-TirmidhE, Sunan AbE DEwEd, Sunan al-NisE’E and Sunan Ibn MEjah) and al-MuwaIItE of MElik ibn Anas. Later on, WalE AllEh’s son ShEh ‘Abd al-‘AzEz, operating from his base in Delhi, helped to popularize it throughout India. SihElvE, based at FarangE Mahal in Lucknow, focused on developing a comprehensive curriculum which came to be called Dars-e-Ni? EmE, after him. SihElvE focused more on the ma‘qElEt (rational sciences) and fiqh than on the manqElEt (transmitted sciences). In fact, an examination of this curriculum shows that it included ten books on logic, five on dialectics and three on philosophy while only a portion from two works of tafsEr and one book of IadEth were studied. 25 This curriculum proved extremely popular because of its ability to prepare students for independent study. Even the ShE‘ites of Lucknow came to the Sunni school of FarangE Mahal to study because of the reputation of this curriculum at producing well-rounded and rational, educated individuals. Although, our period of research ends here, however, let us state this much. WalE AllEh’s curriculum and SihElvE’s curriculum represented two extremes in their emphasis upon the transmitted and the rational sciences, respectively. Quite a number of people took advantage of both the curricula but there was still no single unified curriculum. That came about with the founding of the DEr al-‘UlEm at Deoband in 1866. The curriculum adopted at DEr al-‘UlEm, although still referred to as Dars-e-Ni? EmE, was a combination of the two. On the one hand, rational sciences were studied in almost as much detail as SihElvE had envisaged; and on the 23 24 25 Al-Nadvi, 6. Ibid. , 7. Al-Nadvi Moinuddin, 10. other hand, WalE AllEh’s emphasis on IadEth was also incorporated so that during the last year of study, the OiIEI Sittah, as well as the SharI Ma‘EnE al-OthEr of al-UaIEwE, and the al-MuwaIIEs of MElik and MuIammad al-ShaybEnE were studied in their totality. INDIAN ‘ULAMO AND ? ADOTH The prevalent idea among the vast majority of Indo-Pakistani ‘ulamE is that IadEth was historically a neglected science in India. It was only with the coming of WalE AllEh that this changed. The unique position that WalE AllEh occupies in Indian Muslim intellectual history has meant that his supporters tend to sideline the important contributions made by others before him and during his time. Regarding the contributions of Indian ‘ulamE to IadEth, we have to keep Indian history in perspective. Muslims came to regard India proper (Sindh Multan being the exception) as their home only after the coming to power of QuIb al-DEn Aybak in 1206. Indian Muslims’ contributions should be examined keeping this in mind. By this time, all the major works of IadEth had already been compiled. It was too late for Indians to form part of al-BukhErE’s chain of transmitters. They could not have taken part in the formative period of the IadEth sciences. Sindh, which was Islamized earlier on, did take part in these activities and was the exception. Later Indians, however, engaged in those pursuits that were still possible. They compiled newer collections based upon the original collections. They learned the IadEth sciences, memorized texts with their chains and taught these to others. In this regard, a prominent example is that of ? asan al-OaghEnE al-HindE (d. 1252). He was the Indian ambassador to the Abbasid court in Baghdad. Upon orders of the then Abbasid caliph al-MustanIir BillEh, he compiled MashEriq al-AnwEr, a collection of 2246 aIEdEth from the two OaIEIs of BukhErE and Muslim. The caliph himself studied this book from him. For many centuries after that, this book was an integral part of the curriculum of Islamic madrasahs. Numerous commentaries were written on it by ‘ulamE in Egypt, Iraq, Syria and Hijaz. It was held in such high esteem that Sultan MuIammad ibn Tughlaq is reported to have placed it side by side with the Qur’an while taking oath of allegiance from his officers. 6 26 Muhammad Ishaq, India’s Contribution to the Study of Hadith Literature, (Dhaka, University of Dacca, 1976), 218-221. There are many other examples from each of the succeeding centuries as well as some from the previous ones which show that learning IadEth and teaching it to others was very much a part of the educational system. There was IsmE‘El MuIaddith (d. 1056) who was based in Lahore and had dedicated himself to teaching the various Islamic sciences including IadEth. 27 Then there were Shaykh BahlEl of Delhi and MuftE MuIammad of Lahore, both from the time of Akbar (c. ixteenth century). Both were well-known for their expertise in IadEth. 28 MuftE MuIammad used to teach OaIEI BukhErE and MishkEt al-MaIEbEI. Also from the sixteenth century is MEr MurtazE SharEfE, the grandson of SharEf JurjEnE. He left Shiraz to go to Makkah and learned IadEth from ibn ? ajar al-MakkE and got ijEzah (permission/license) from him to teach it to others. He came to settle down in Agra and passed away during the reign of Akbar. 29 Then there was ? Efi? DarEz PeshEwarE who had learned IadEth from his mother. This lady had written a commentary on OaIEI BukhErE in Persian. 0 Moreover, it is mentioned about MuIammad Farrukh, the grandson of AImad Sirhindi, that he had memorized 70,000 aIEadEth along with their chains and texts and their strengths and weaknesses. 31 This devotion to IadEth was not confined to North India alone. Gujarat in western India is situated opposite the Arabian Peninsula and therefore, has enjoyed a closer relationship with the Arab peninsula from the beginning. Prominent ‘ulamE such as ‘AlE MuttaqE (d. c. 1568) and his students MuIammad ibn UEhir PatnE (d. 1578) and ‘Abd al-WahhEb al-MuttaqE (d. 1592) were in the forefront in the science of IadEth. They flourished in Gujarat and Makkah and from there, their influence extended to various parts of the world. In Delhi, ’Abd al-WahhEb’s student ‘Abd al-? aqq (d. 1642) was active in disseminating IadEth. He wrote important commentaries on the major works of IadEth. He was followed by his son NEr al-? aqq, who similarly, was quite active in serving the IadEth sciences. In South India, we find the sixteenth century scholar BhikErE KEkorvE who wrote a book on the principles of IadEth, titled al-MinhEj. 32 In Zaidpur in eastern India, MawlEnE ‘Abd al27 28 Ishaq, 45-46. GElEnE, 129. 29 Ishaq, 99. 30 GElEnE, 130. For more information about women muIaddithEt (traditionists) throughout Muslim history, see Akram Nadvi’s up-coming 40 volume work al-Muhaddithat: Women Scholars in Islam. Its one volume introduction (muqaddimah) has recently been published by Interfaith Publications, UK. 31 GElEnE, 128. 32 Ishaq, 124. Awwal (d. 1560) had written a commentary on OaIEI BukhErE, titled FayI al-BErE. 33 Even OzEd, more famous for the historical works that he wrote, had written a commentary on OaIEI BukhErE, titled Oaw’ al-OarErE. 4 In Kashmir, there was MullE InEyat AllEh KashmErE (d. 1713). He had taught OaIEI BukhErE thirty six times. 35 And then in the nineteenth century, we find RaImat AllEh IlEhabEdE who had memorized the six books of IadEth (OiIEI Sittah). 36 The rulers also took active part in patronizing IadEth sciences. It is mentioned about Sultan MaImEd ShEh (d. 1397) of the South Indian Bahmani kingdom that he had set aside special sti pends for the scholars of IadEth so that they could stay engaged in their scholarly pursuits without having to worry about earning their living. 37 Sufis and Knowledge Sufis enjoy perhaps the worst reputation in Islamic scholarly circles. Much of this stems from the behavior and statements of ignorant Sufis. This then leads to a blanket condemnation of all Sufis including the classical giants of taIawwuf. Historical evidence points in a different direction. It would be helpful to consider here the case of some Sufis and their attitudes towards education. In fact, in the second half of the thirteenth century, Delhi saw the founding of the khEnqEh of the famous Chishti saint, Ni? Em al-DEn AwliyE. Not only had Ni? Em al-DEn studied the above-mentioned MashEriq al-AnwEr from cover to cover but also knew the entire collection by heart. 38 The best source of information about him is his utterances (malfE? Et) that were recorded by his disciple AmEr ? asan SijzE (d. 1336) in his famous work FawE’id al-Fu’Ed. 39 Even a cursory glance at this collection will show that Ni? Em al-DEn had a thorough understanding of IadEth and fiqh. And this in spite of the fact that he was busy training his Sufi disciples and did not have time to be actively involved in the intellectual life of Delhi. Another incident is worth considering. It is mentioned about a certain AkhE SirEj who had moved at a young age from his native Lakhnauti to Delhi to benefit from Ni? Em al-DEn. He lived in Ni? Em al-DEn’s khEnqEh for many years. Once, someone recommended his name to 33 34 Ibid. , 122. Ibid, 163. 35 Ishaq, 160 and GElEnE, 128. 36 GElEnE, 128. 37 Ibid. , 134 and Ishaq, 103. 38 GElEnE, 119. See Nizami, Some Aspects†¦, 347 for the ijEzat nEmah (license to teach) that Ni? Em al-DEn received from his teacher after completing MashEriq al-AnwEr. 39 AmEr ? asan SijzE, FawE’id al-Fu’Ed, translated from Persian into Urdu by ZiyE-ul-? san FErEqE, (New Delhi: DK Printworld, 1996). Ni? Em al-DEn for successorship. Ni? Em al-DEn replied that SirEj was not educated and therefore, not qualified to be a successor. Upon this, one of the scholar disciples of Ni? Em al-DEn, MawlEnE Fakhr al-DEn ZarrEdE volunteered to teach SirEj and fulfill this important condition for him. He accomplished this in six months. 40 This shows the erudition and skill of ZarrEdE as well as the acumen of SirEj to learn. Above all, this incident shows the central importance that Sufis gave to education. One could argue that the sources for all such incidents are hagiographical accounts whose sole purpose is to glorify the personality of the person being written about. Even if we were to accept this charge, although there is enough reason not to, even then, the fact that the biographers considered acquisition of knowledge to be praiseworthy shows the status of knowledge and education in the Muslim society of that time. AVAILABILITY OF BOOKS The scarcity of books in India before the coming of the press has been made quite an issue of. Some historians, as evidence of this claim, have cited an incident involving WalE AllEh’s son, ShEh ‘Abd al-‘AzEz. It is reported that when ‘Abd al-‘AzEz began writing his Persian commentary on the Qur’an (FatI al-‘AzEz), he could not even find al-TafsEr al-KabEr of al-REzE. 41 After a desperate search, he finally found it in the library at the Royal Palace in Delhi. This is hard to believe. All of ‘Abd al-‘AzEz works have come down to us. We find him referring directly to classical works of ShEfi‘E, AbE YEsuf (the main student of AbE ? anEfah), al-GhazzElE, Ibn ? azm, Ibn Taymiyyah, etc. Some of these works were hard to find even after coming of the press. It is reasonable to assume that someone who had access to such rare works would also have had access to al-REzE’s work. Even if the incident was to be considered true, it cannot be taken to be representative of a general trend. It appears as an exception rather than the rule. Moreover, GElEnE has cited an incident involving OzEd’s teacher, MEr Tufayl. OzEd writes that once MEr Tufayl went to see the Nawab of Agra. There, a debate ensued about certain linguistic aspects of the Qur’anic verse â€Å"and for those who have the power† (2:184). According to OzEd even for this relatively minor issue, most major works of tafsEr, including al-REzE’s al- 40 41 Ni? EmE, IslEmE TehzEb†¦, 43. GElEnE, 38. TafsEr al-KabEr, al-KashshEf, BayIEwE, and other books of language and rhetoric were consulted. 42 MullE MuIib AllEh BihErE (d. 1707) is a prominent scholar who flourished during Awrangzeb’s (d. 1707) reign. He is the author of Musallam al-ThubEt, a famous work on the principles of jurisprudence (uIEl al-fiqh). A manuscript of the author’s marginalia on this work is available online. 43 In this, he mentions the books that he consulted while writing this book. The list includes all the major works of uIEl of each of the Sunni schools viz. UIEl al-BazdawE, UIEl al-SarkhasE, Kashf al-BazdawE, Kashf al-ManEr, al-BadE‘ along with its commentaries, alTawIEI wa al-TalwEI, al-TaIrEr along with its commentaries al-TaqrEr and al-TaysEr, al-MaIIEl of al-REzE, al-IIkEm of al-OmidE, QaIE’s MukhtaIar along with its various glosses, SharI of alAbharE, SharI of TaftEzEnE, gloss of FEzil MirzE JEn, al-RudEd, al-‘UnqEd, al-MinhEj of alBayIEwE along with its commentary, MukhtaIar of ibn al-? Ejib and Muntaha al-UIEl. This is an exhaustive list. If these books were available to someone working in Bihar, it is quite reasonable to assume that they would have been available in the capital Delhi as well. In fact, not only were books easily available during the period under study, rather it was not such a major issue. There are two important reasons for that. Firstly, there was always a professional group of copyists in each locality who were called warrEq (scribe) or nussEkh (copyist). They kept track of all the books available in their area as well as other cities and upon demand they could quickly make copies of the desired book. 4 Secondly, amongst the general educated public most people could write quite fast. About the first contention, the following incident is quite telling. ‘Abd al-QEdir BadEyEnE (d. 1625) was an accomplished scholar and man of letters who was attached to Akbar’s court. Although working under Akbar, he had become thoroughly disgusted with Akbar’s eclecticism. Even though an officially approved history of Akbar’s reign had been written by Abul Fazl titled Akbar NEmah, BadEyEnE felt that the record needed to be set 42 43 Ibid. , 57. MuIib AllEh BihErE, ? Eshiyat Musallam al-ThubEt, MS. Or. 350, p. 1, University of Leipzig Library, downloaded from â€Å"UIEl al-Fiqh wa al-QawE‘id al-Fiqhiyyah,† al-MuIIafE min al-MakhIEIEt al-‘Arabiyyah wa alIslEmiyyah, %20 %20 %20 accessed 16 August, 2010). 44 During the period under study, copyrights violation was not an issue. There was no legal hindrance to making copies of other people’s books. Today, the opinion is divided among traditional scholars regarding copyrights. Some insist that they have no basis in Islamic law. Others approve of them. For a sampling, see NEh ? E MEm Keller, â€Å"Copyrights in Islam,† Shadhili Teachings, (accessed 17 August, 2010). right. So, in secret, he wrote his historical work titled Muntakhab at-TawErEkh, in which he showed the darker side of Akbar’s reign. He could not make it public during his own lifetime for fear of severe official reaction. After his death, some copyists got hold of it and before long its copies were to be found all over the country. By this time, JahEngEr, the son of Akbar, had ascended the throne. He tried to ban the book. However, in spite of his absolutist powers, JahEngEr could not take this book out of circulation. Every now and then, a report would be received that this book was seen in this town or that city. 45 This can be reasonably attributed to the easy availability of copyists who made sure that they had access to books that people wanted. In fact, this also explains the slow spread of the press in India. The effective system of copyists had relieved people of the need for a printing press. About the second contention, i. e. the writing speed of educated people, let us present some incidents. OzEd has mentioned about a certain scholar Shaykh KamEl: Text books of Iarf (morphology), naIw (syntax), manIiq (logic), Iikmah (philosophy), ma‘EnE, bayEn, fiqh, uIEl, and tafsEr, all of these, he copied with his own hand. And for every book, he wrote its gloss in such a way that the text did not require the commentary anymore and the commentary did not require the text anymore. 46 Regarding Shaykh NEgaurE, the father of Abul Fazl and FayzE, OzEd writes, â€Å"He wrote 500 volumes with his own hands. 47 Similarly, it is mentioned in the account of a certain Shaykh Junayd ? isErE that he could copy the whole Qur’an in three days and that too with the diacritical marks. 48 To close this topic, let us mention what ‘Abd al-WahhEb MuttaqE has mentioned regarding his teacher ‘AlE MuttaqE. This has been quoted by ‘Abd al-WahhEb’s student ‘Abd al? aq DehlavE in his AkhbEr al-AkhyEr. ‘AlE MuttaqE had moved to Makkah and was the foremost scholar of that city. ‘Abd al-WahhEb mentions about him that he had a habit of copying 45 46 47 48 GElEnE, 59. Ibid. , 62. Ibid. Ibid. , 63. mportant books and sending them out to all those regions where such books were unlikely to be found and people would need them. Writing books was a religious vocation for him. 49 CONCLUSION A systematic study of Islamic intellectual her itage (of India as well as the rest of the Muslim world) is essential for a better understanding of Islamic Civilization. In the preceding account, we have tried to give a glimpse of the educational system of historical Muslim India. This is just a preliminary study. The abundance of historical evidence seems to suggest a very well- organized and organic system of education. Madrasahs, maktabs, mosques, private houses, all kinds of institutions existed in harmony. The options available to any sincere seeker of knowledge were many. Seeking knowledge and imparting it was a sacred exercise and not a commercial enterprise. The general attitude of the public towards knowledge and those who engaged in it was fundamental to the flourishing of this system. General interest in the various Islamic sciences meant that all segments of the population participated in the cultivation and dissemination of Islamic sciences. Sufis thus placed high value on seeking a proper Islamic education. Similarly, Indian scholars paid close attention to the IadEth sciences. Many of them rose to become pre-eminent IadEth scholars known for their erudition throughout the Muslim world. Moreover, the curriculum that had evolved over the years maintained a healthy balance between the secular and the religious. There were differences in terms of emphasis on the rational vs. the transmitted sciences. However, the overall curriculum was still relatively holistic. In short, Muslim India matched the central lands of Islam in terms of its educational advancement and achievements. 49 See ‘Abd al-? qq DehlavE, AkhbEr al-AkhyEr, translated from Persian into Urdu by SubIEn MaImEd and MuIammad FEzil, (Karachi: MadEnah Publishing Company, n. d. ), 529. BIBLIOGRAPHY Al-BayhaqE, AbE Bakr AImad ibn al-? usayn. (1410 AH). Vol. 2, Shu‘ab al-OmEn [Branches of Faith]. BayrEt: DEr al-Kutub al-‘Ilmiyyah. BihErE, MuIib AllEh. ?Eshiyat Musallam al-ThubEt [Marginalia on the Flawless Evidence]. MS. Or. 350. University of Leipzig Library, downloaded from Usul al-Fiqh wa alQawa’id al-Fiqhiyyah [Principles of Jurisprudence and Legal Maxims], al-MuIIafE min al-MakhIEIEt al-‘Arabiyyah wa al-IslEmiyyah [Chosen Arabic and Islamic Manuscripts]. Retrieved August 16, 2010. http://mostafamakhtot. blogspot. com/search/label/16%20 %20 %20 %20 DehlavE, ‘Abd al-? aqq. (n. d. ). AkhbEr al-AkhyEr [Reports of the Select]. (SubIEn MaImEd and MuIammad Fazil, Trans. ). Karachi: MadEnah Publishing Company. GElEnE, Sayyid ManE? ir AIsan. (n. d. ). PEk-o-Hind main MusalmEnon kE Ni? Em e Ta‘lEm-oTarbiyyat [The educational system of Muslims in Pakistan and India]. Lahore: Maktaba RaImEniyya. Al-? asanE, ‘Abd al-? ayy. (1983). Al-ThaqEfah al-IslEmiyyah fi al-Hind [Islamic Civilization in India]. Damascus: Mujamma‘ al-Lugha al-‘Arabiyyah bi Dimashq. Jaffar, S. M. (1972). Education in Muslim India. Delhi: IdEra AdabiyyEt-e-DillE. Keller, NEh ? E MEm. (1997). Copyrights in Islam. Retrieved August 17, 2010. http://www. shadhiliteachings. com/tariq/? act=articleid=6. MubErakpErE, MuIammad ‘Abd al-RaImEn ibn ‘Abd al-RaIEm. (n. d. ). Vol. 7, TuIfat alAIwadhE bi SharI JEmi‘ al-TirmidhE [Gift of the Skilful, a commentary on JEmi‘ alTirmidhE]. Ed. ‘Abd al- RaImEn MuIammad ‘UthmEn. BayrEt: DEr al-Fikr. Muhammad Ishaq. (1976). India’s Contribution to the Study of Hadith Literature. Dhaka, University of Dacca. MuIammad ShafE‘. (2002). FutEI al-Hind [Conquests of India]. Karachi: IdErat al-Ma‘Erif. Al-Nadvi Moinuddin, Survey of Muslim Education: India, (Cambridge: The Islamic Academy, 1985), 5. Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad. (1961). Some Aspects of Religion Politics in India during the 13th century. Bombay: Asia Publishing. Ni? EmE, KhalEq AImad. (1982). IslEmE TehzEb kE Asar HindustEn par [The effect of Islamic Civilization on India]. Lucknow, Majlis TehqEqEt-o-NashriEt–e-IslEm. SijzE, AmEr ? asan. (1996). FawE’id al-Fu’Ed [Benefits of the Heart]. (ZiyE-ul-? asan FErEqE, Trans. ). New Delhi: DK Printworld. How to cite Some Aspects of Muslim Educational System in Pre-Colonial India, Papers

Employee Attitude / Organizational Behavior Essay Example For Students

Employee Attitude / Organizational Behavior Essay Employee attitude/Organizational Behavior Introduction A happy worker makes for a good worker you say? Well, United Airlines had somewhat of an all for one employee attitude in July 1994. They announced the purchase of their own company for which they work for $5 billion through ESOP (Employee Stock Ownership Plan). So now, in the case of United Airlines, there obviously is a soar in employee productivity and spirits. Stocks have risen 120% due to this buyout (almost three times higher than the airline industry average gain). Every company or small business owner desires a positive employee attitude within his or her organization for high productivity and quality. United Airlines achieved this because the employees themselves took action, but for the majority, it is the managements first move. Taking the Apple from the tree The Idiots Guide for Changing Employee Attitudes would say to pay the employee what O.J. paid his defense team. Take away the money part of a job then no one except an old volunteer worker for a Save the World Foundation or a simple dork is going to show favorable attitudes towards the job. Now lets get realbut I thought that we were! Money can hypnotize some employees to become a more productive worker, but not all employees. (And even the ones that are motivated at the first glimpse of dead presidents will soon want. you guessed it, more money in order to drag their lazy ass up the next step). What about Bill Gates techno wizards at Microsoft? What sum of money short of Bills own bank account is going to motivate these 30-year-old Gulfstream owners to change their snobbish attitudes? On a more practical basis, what about those employees who value intrinsic rewards over the monetary type? Not all employees will be weaned with the flash of cash. So we all must consider the fact that human beings will be consistent towards the general sense of satisfaction, but what sort of things lead to this satisfaction? What kind of satisfaction are we looking for? More so, what is going to satisfy an employee? Most of the research in the study of OB (Organizational Behavior) are concerned with job satisfaction, job involvement and organizational commitment. (Robbins, 1997) The second two attitudes, job involvement and organizational commitment, are more or less the results of job satisfaction. An employee who has a high level of job satisfaction tends to bear attitudes, which are favorable to the organization. When a prospective employee goes to that interview, there are going to be friends of that prospect who will give the most simple advice of Sell yourself! This is your chance to prove yourself to that important company! Little do those simpleton friends know that this is also the chance for the company to lay a sales pitch on the prospect too! Managers are concerned with the efficient operation and profit margin of the company more so than an employees job satisfaction. (Robbins, 1997) To managers, an employees job satisfaction is just an insurance that the employee will be productive and not skip work, and of course, to get the best man for the job. So of course, when a manager giving the interview favors a prospect, only the jobs favorable side will tend to be revealed. The prospect is told of a wonderland where the corporate ladder is actually a stepping stool. There is no mention of the negative sides, to which the manager does a David Copperfield on. The applicant now has expect ations about this job that has to be met by the job or there will be a lot of dissatisfied employees. .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 , .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 .postImageUrl , .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 , .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649:hover , .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649:visited , .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649:active { border:0!important; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649:active , .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649 .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u7a1a1cf4a90c3ab481cdd8e170965649:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Recycling Essay Balancing the positives with the negatives is important so that the employee will not be disappointed and become a problem that couldve been avoided from the beginning. (Robbins, 1997) Mirror, mirror on the wall. Successful leaders have vision, communicate well, make effective decisions, and motivate their followers. Employees are more likely to respond to a leader who is likable and credible. A leader who would want to change attitudes must have a very unbiased one. The managements attitude is going to give employees a very visual idea of how his or her job .